Biomimetic compounds and synthetic methods therefor

ABSTRACT

Synthesis methods for creating polymeric compounds comprising dihydroxyphenyl derivatives (DHPD), or DHPp i.e. polymers modified with DHPD, with desired surface active effects are described. The polymer backbone of DHPp has structural or performance features that can be tailored to control physical properties of DHPp, allowing it to be useful for different applications i.e. tissue adhesives or sealants, adhesion promoting coatings, and antifouling coatings.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit and priority of U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 60/821,459 filed on Aug. 4, 2006, the entirety of which is incorporated by reference herein. References incorporated by reference in the 60/821,459 application also are incorporated by reference herein.

REFERENCE TO GOVERNMENT FUNDING

This research was funded in part by NIH (DE017827-01, GM080774-01). ¹H NMR was performed at National Magnetic Resonance Facility at Madison, which is supported by NIH (P41RR02301, P41GM66326, RR02781, RR08438), the NSF (DMB-8415048, OIA-9977486, BIR-9214394), the University of Wisconsin, and the USDA. The government may have rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Marine mussels are known for their ability to bind tenaciously to such varied surfaces as rocks, pilings, and ship hulls in a wet, turbulent, and saline environment.[1, 2] These marine organisms secrete adhesive proteins as liquids that rapidly harden to form adhesive plaques, all under water, allowing them to attach themselves to various surfaces. The water-resistant adhesive characteristics of mussel adhesive proteins (MAPs) are believed to be due to the presence of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), which is also responsible for both interfacial adhesion and rapid hardening.[3-5]

There have been numerous attempts to engineer compounds that mimic the adhesive proteins secreted by marine mussels. These methods include the extraction of natural MAPs,[6-8] the use of recombinant DNA technologies to create adhesive proteins,[9-11] and synthesis of DOPA-containing peptides using both solid-phase and solution-phase methods.[12-15] Although these MAP-mimetic adhesives demonstrate strong adhesion to various surfaces,[12, 16-19] their adhesive formulations utilize peptide backbones, which can be costly to mass-produce and have limited physical properties. Messersmith and colleagues[20-23] have recently developed a series of DOPA-modified synthetic polymeric gels that demonstrate strong water-resistant adhesion. The same research group has also prepared coatings that can repel protein and cellular adsorption by chemically coupling a MAP-mimetic peptides to antifouling synthetic polymers.[24-28]

The approach of combining synthetic polymers with DOPA and its dihydroxyphenyl derivatives (DHPD) to form DHPD-modified adhesive polymers (DHPp) may have numerous applications in clinical, dental, and industrial arenas. The general structure of DHPp is shown in FIG. 1. DHPD can impart strong water-resistant adhesion as well as rapid and controllable intermolecular curing of the adhesive polymers. Different synthetic polymers can be used to control other physical properties such as but not limited to biocompatibility, solubility, biodegradability, self-assembling ability, chemical architecture, stimulus-response ability, branching, and molecular weight. Thus these molecules can be tailored to a particular use by varying the polymer portion of the compound. Specifically, the adhesive polymers described here not only can be designed to promote adhesion between two dissimilar surfaces, they can also be designed to prevent adhesion of undesirable particles (i.e. cells, proteins bacteria, etc). Additionally, inexpensive starting materials are used for the syntheses, which allow the subsequent adhesive polymers to be prepared inexpensively and in large quantities for commercialization. Furthermore, starting materials of known biocompatibility can be used to formulate these polymers, which makes them suitable for clinical applications.

New approaches to creating adhesive polymers modified with multiple DHPD are described herein. Different synthetic methods were used to combine the adhesive moiety, DHPD, with various biocompatible, synthetic compounds to create a library of adhesive polymers that can be designed for a desired application. These multi-DHPD polymers were tested for their potential as tissue adhesives, coatings for promoting adhesion, and coatings for adhesion prevention.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Briefly, in one aspect, the present invention is a polymer or copolymer comprising a polymer backbone (pB) having attached, generally pendant, dihydroxyphenyl derivatives (DHPDs) to form a DHPD-modified polymer (DHPp) having: 1) a variable concentration, distribution, or number of DHPD moieties, which account for about 1 to about 100% by weight DHPp, preferably about 1-75% by weight in DHPp, 2) a total molecular weight between 1,000 and 5,000,000 Da, and 3) a pB with variable physical properties.

In a preferred embodiment of this aspect of the invention, DHPD preferably comprises from about 2 to about 65 weight percent of DHPp, more preferably about 3 to about 55 weight percent DHPp, and yet more preferably at least about 5 weight percent DHPp.

In a further preferred embodiment of this aspect of the invention, DHPp has a preferred total molecular weight in the range of about 3,000 to about 1,000,000 most preferably about 5,000 to about 500,000 Da.

More particularly, this present invention comprises a pB with pendant DHPD providing a DHPp generally of the structure (I):

wherein LG is an optional linking group and pB indicates the polymer backbone.

In DHPp, DHPD imparts: 1) the ability to bind to or adhere to a dissimilar substrate, surface, compound, or particle, both organic and inorganic, in an aqueous, humid, or non-aqueous environment, and 2) the ability to form irreversible (covalent bond) or reversible (hydrogen bond, electron π-π interaction) chemical crosslinks either with other DHPD, other functional groups (i.e. amine, thiol, hydroxyl, or carboxyl groups), or other reactive groups.

Additionally, the composition and chemical structure of the polymer backbone can be varied to control 1) the DHPD weight percent, 2) the molecular weight of the DHPp, and 3) the physical properties of DHPp (solubility, hydrophilicity-hydrophobicity, physical crosslinking ability, self-assembly ability, architecture, charge, degradability, among others) for a desired application.

In a further aspect the present invention is a polymer or copolymer comprising a pB having a controllable and variable number, concentration, or distribution of pendant DHPDs relative to the molecular weight of the DHPp. In a further variation, the pB is constructed from smaller molecular weight monomers, prepolymers, or oligomers having variable chemical compositions or containing pendant groups or moieties distributed along and between the DHPD pendant moieties (and in the pB) as is shown in structural formula (II):

R₁ is a monomer, prepolymer, or oligomer linked or polymerized to form pB. The polymer backbone has structural or performance features or characteristics designed or introduced into it by means of the “in-line” or backbone linkages, R₁. In-line or backbone linkages or linking groups can be introduced to control or modify all of the polymer characteristics shown in the right box of Formula (I). Examples of such backbone linkages include but are not limited to amide, ester, urethane, urea, carbonate, or carbon-carbon linkages or the combination thereof.

Generally, DHPD can be illustrated as structural formula (III):

wherein R₂ and R₃ may be the same or different and are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, saturated and unsaturated, branched and unbranched, substituted and unsubstituted C₁₋₄ hydrocarbon;

P₁ is separately and independently selected from the group consisting of —NH₂, —COOH, —OH, —SH,

wherein R₂ and R₃ are defined above.

a single bond, halogen,

wherein A₁ and A₂ are separately and independently selected from the group consisting of H, a single bond;

a protecting group,

substantially poly(alkyleneoxide),

wherein n=1-3

and A₃ is

C₁₋₆ lower alkyl, or

R₅ is defined the same as R₂ or R₃, above, and D is indicated in Formula (III).

In one aspect the poly(alkylene oxide) has the structure

wherein R₆ and R₇ are separately and independently —H, or —CH₃ and m has a value in the range of 1-250, A₄ is —NH₂, —COOH, —OH, —SH, —H or a protecting group.

In a very preferred form, DHPD is

R₂, R₃, and P₁ being defined as above.

In a further preferred form DHPD is of the structure:

-   -   wherein A₂ is —OH and A₁ is substantially poly(alkylene oxide)         of the structure

R₆, R₇ and m being defined as above. Generally speaking the poly(alklene oxide) is a block copolymer of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide.

A method of this invention involves adhering substrates to one another comprising the steps of providing DHPD of the structure:

wherein R₂ and R₃ are defined as above; applying the DHPD of the above structure to one or the other or both of the substrates to be adhered; contacting the substrates to be adhered with the DHPD of the above structure therebetween to adhere the substrates to each other, and optionally repositioning the substrates relative to each other by separating the substrates and recontacting them to each other with the DHPD of the above structure therebetween.

In a preferred method, R₂ and R₃ are hydrogen.

In an yet preferred form, the DHPD is:

wherein P₁, R₂ and R₃ are defined above, and n ranges between 1 and about 5. In one practice, R₂ and R₃ are hydrogen and P₁ is, itself, dihydroxy phenyl. A more preferred DHPD in a practice of the present invention is 3,4, dihydroxy phenyl alanine (DOPA), (generically),

wherein A₁ and A₂ are defined above.

In yet another aspect of the present invention, DHPD has a general chemical structure formula (IV):

wherein LG is a linking group that attaches DHPD to pB and is further defined below; R₈ is —H, protecting group, or metal ion, each R₈ structure being separately and independently selected from the indicated group; R₉ is other constituents chosen from —SH, —NH₂, COOH, alkyl, LG, halogen or a combination thereof, where each R₉ structure being separately and independently selected from the indicated group.

q is a value between 0 and 5 but is preferably 2.

LG is chosen from oligomers of substantially poly(alkylene oxide), acrylate, methacrylate, vinyl groups, and their derivatives, or having chemical structure formula (V):

wherein R₂ and R₃ are defined above; x is a value between zero and four;

P₂ is selected from the group consisting of —NH₂, COOH, —OH, —SH, a single bond, halogen,

—NH-A₅-,

-   -   wherein A₅ is selected from the group consisting of —H, —C, a         single bond,         -   a protecting group, substantially alkyl, poly(alkylene             oxide), peptidal, acrylated, methacrylated, or the same as             A₁ and A₂;

-   -   wherein A₆ is selected from the group of —OH, —NH—, in addition         to the definition of A₁;

-   -   wherein A₅ and A₆ are defined above.

One preferred chemical structure of DHPD is:

wherein LG is defined above.

An even more preferred form of DHPD is:

wherein LG is defined above.

It is even more preferable that DHPD be chosen from 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), dopamine, or 3,4-dihydroxyhydrocinnamic acid (DOHA), as well as precursors and further derivatized forms of said compounds. Examples of precursors include but are not limited to tyrosine, tyramine, hydrocinnamic acid, phenylalanine, benzenepropanoic acid, benzylethamine, 2,4,5-trihydroxyphenylalanine and other phenolic or benzyl compounds that can be hydroxylated or dehydroxylated to form DHPD. Examples of further derivatized forms of DHPD include DHPD with protecting group(s), DHPD bound to metal ion on the hydroxyl group(s), or DHPD modified with acrylate, methacrylate, substantially poly(alkylene oxide), peptide or oligomer containing DHPD and its precursors, and the combination thereof.

The composition and physical properties of pB are varied by the physical properties of, ratio of, composition, or combination of monomers or prepolymers used to construct said pB.

pB is constructed by polymerization, chain extension, linking, crosslinking or reaction of a single or more than one type of monomer or prepolymer.

pB is preferably a) linear or branched, b) mono-, bi-, tri-, or multi-functional to achieve a pB with linear, branched, hyper-branched, or brush architecture.

pB is preferably hydrophilic, hydrophobic or amphiphilic to achieve the desired solubility, stiffness, physical crosslinking ability, or self-assembly characteristics.

pB is preferably neutral, positively or negatively charged, or a combination thereof to achieve a neutral, charged, or zwitterionic pB.

pB is preferably polyether, polyester, polyamide, polyurethane, polycarbonate, or polyacrylate among many others and the combination thereof.

pB can be constructed of different linkages, but is preferably comprised of acrylate, carbon-carbon, ether, amide, urea, urethane, ester, or carbonate linkages or a combination thereof to achieve the desired rate of degradation or chemical stability.

pB of desired physical properties can be selected from prefabricated functionalized polymers or FP, a pB that contain functional groups (i.e. amine, hydroxyl, thiol, carboxyl, vinyl group, etc.) that can be modified with DHPD to from DHPp.

The actual method of linking the monomer or prepolymer to form a pB will result in the formation of amide, ester, urethane, urea, carbonate, or carbon-carbon linkages or the combination of these linkages, and the stability of the pB is dependent on the stability of these linkages.

The molecular weight of monomer or prepolymer can vary between about 50 and 20,000 Da but is preferably between about 60 and 10,000 Da.

The monomer or prepolymer is preferably a single compound or repeating monomer units of a single-, bi-, tri-, or multi-block structure.

The monomer or prepolymer is preferably comprised of single or multiple chemical compositions.

The monomer or prepolymer is preferably a) linear or branched, b) mono-, bi-, tri-, or multi-functional to achieve a pB with linear, branched, hyper-branched, or brush architecture.

The monomer or prepolymer is preferably monofunctional, bi-functional, or multifunctional with reactive or polymerizable functional groups such as amine, hydroxyl, thiol, carboxyl, and vinyl groups among others.

The monomer or prepolymer is preferably hydrophilic, hydrophobic or amphiphilic to achieve the desired pB solubility, physical crosslinking ability, or self-assembly ability.

The monomer or prepolymer is preferably neutral, positively or negatively charged, or combination thereof to achieve a neutral, charged, or zwitterionic pB.

The monomer or prepolymer is preferably polyether, polyester, polyamide, polyacrylate, polyalkyl, polysaccharide, and their derivatives or precursors, as well as the combination thereof.

“DHPD” as the term is used herein to mean dihydroxyphenyl derivative.

“DHPp” as the term is used herein to mean a pB modified with DHPD.

“Monomer” as the term is used herein to mean non-repeating compound or chemical that is capable of polymerization to form a pB.

“Prepolymer” as the term is used herein to mean an oligomeric compound that is capable of polymerization or polymer chain extension to form a pB. The molecular weight of a prepolymer will be much lower than, on the order of 10% or less of, the molecular weight of the pB.

Monomers and prepolymers can be and often are polymerized together to produce a pB.

“pB” as the term is used herein to mean a polymer backbone comprising a polymer, co-polymer, terpolymer, oligomer or multi-mer resulting from the polymerization of pB monomers, pB prepolymers, or a mixture of pB monomers and/or prepolymers. The polymer backbone is preferably a homopolymer but most preferably a copolymer. The polymer backbone is DHPp excluding DHPD.

“FP” as the term is used herein to mean a polymer backbone functionalized with amine, thiol, carboxy, hydroxyl, or vinyl groups, which can be used to react with DHPD to form DHPp.

“DHPD weight percent” as the term is used herein to mean the percentage by weight in DHPp that is DHPD.

“DHPp molecular weight” as the term is used herein to mean the sum of the molecular weights of the polymer backbone and the DHPD attached to said polymer backbone.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1: General structure of DHPp.

FIG. 2: General synthesis scheme 1-Polymerizable DHPD is copolymerized with polymerizable comonomer to form DHPp. P₃ is a polymerizable group such as vinyl, acrylate, or methacrylate group.

FIG. 3: General synthesis scheme 2-Polymer chain extension reaction between a bifunctional prepolymer and a multi-functional chain extender to form a functionalized polymer and the subsequent coupling with DHPD to form DHPp. x, y and Z are functional groups (—NH₂, —OH, —SH, —COOH, etc.), where x reacts only with y, and Z is remained to react with DHPD.

FIG. 4: General synthesis scheme 3-Reaction of DHPD with commercially available or prefabricated functionalized polymer to from DHPp. Z is a functional group such as —NH₂, —OH, —SH, —COOH, etc., which can react with DHPD.

FIG. 5: Polymerization of DMA1 with a comonomer to form DHPp. R₁₀=comonomer side chain and R₁₂=H or —CH₃.

FIG. 6: Examples of DHP-modified with polymerizable vinyl group.

FIG. 7: Synthesis of amine terminated polymer using cysteamine as the chain transfer agent. R₁₀=comonomer side chain and R₁₂=—H or —CH₃.

FIG. 9: Synthesis of PEE-1 by melt polycondensation of PEG-diol and Cbz-Asp Anh, deprotection of Cbz, and the subsequent addition of Boc-DOPA through carbodiimide chemistry.

FIG. 10: Synthesis of PEE-5 by reacting PEG-diol with fumaryl chloride, functionalizing with —COOH, and the subsequent addition of dopamine through carbodiimide chemistry.

FIG. 11: Synthesis of PEE-9 by reacting PEG-diol and HMPA with succinyl chloride and the subsequent addition of dopamine through carbodiimide chemistry.

FIG. 12: Synthesis of PEA-1 by modification of PEG prepolymer with DHP prior to polymer chain extension.

FIG. 13: Synthesis of GEL-1 by reacting gelatin with 3,4-dihydroxyhydrocinnamic acid using carbodiimide chemistry. R represents amino acid side chains of gelatin.

FIG. 14: Synthesis of GEL-4 by first grafting a chain transfer agent onto gelatin using carbodiimide chemistry followed by free-radical polymerization of DMA1. R represents amino acid side chains of gelatin.

FIG. 15: In situ curing and adhesion of catechol-containing structural adhesive between A) two biological tissue surfaces and, B) tissue and implant surfaces.

FIG. 16: Application of DHPp as an adhesive coating (A) and an antifouling coating (B).

FIG. 17: Schematic of burst strength test apparatus (A) and a close up of the sealant and the substrate (B).

FIG. 18: Schematic of lap shear adhesion test set up.

FIG. 19: Nanostructural adhesive coated with PDMA-12.

FIG. 20: AFM force measurements on nanoscale adhesive on Si₃N₄ cantilever. (A) Force needed to detach from a single control PDMS or PDMA-12 coated surfaces in air or in water. (B) Repeated adhesion contact of PDMA-12 coated surfaces in air and water.

FIG. 21: Schematic of a modified Robbins device for assaying bacterial attachment and biofilm formation.

REFERENCE TO TABLES

Discussed in the following section is Tables 1A-1D, 2A-2F, 3A-3D, 4A-4C, 5-11. Those tables follow the References section as a group.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Polymer Synthesis

The general structure of the multi-DHPD adhesive polymer is shown in FIG. 1. This polymer consists of multiple pendant DHPDs attached to a polymer backbone (pB). DHPD is incorporated to act as the water-resistant adhesive moiety as well as the intermolecular cross-linking precursor. The number of DHPDs in a DHPp can be used to control the adhesive nature of the polymer, as it has been demonstrated that higher DOPA content correlates to stronger adhesive strengths.[12, 22] Higher DHPD content can also increase the cure rate of these adhesive polymers.

The polymer backbone can be used to control different physical properties in these multi-DHPD polymers. A hydrophilic and water-soluble polymer backbone such as poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) can be used to create a water soluble DHPp. Additionally, PEG has a very good biocompatability profile and has been used in many products approved for clinical applications. Hydrophobic segments can be incorporated to increase the stiffness of the polymer backbone, which can result in aggregation of these hydrophobic regions in an aqueous media as well as increasing the mechanical strength of the chemically cured DHPp. Different types of chemical linkages can be used to control the stability and the rate of degradation of the polymer backbone. These linkages can vary from stable carbon-carbon, ether, urea, and amide linkages to urethane, ester and carbonate linkages that are easily hydrolysable. Finally, branched polymer backbones can be used to increase the curing rate of DHPp.

Three general types of synthetic methods were used to create multi-DHPD adhesive polymers. In the first method (FIG. 2), DHPD containing a polymerizable group (i.e. vinyl, acrylate, methacrylate) is copolymerized with one or multiple comonomer(s) to form a DHPp. In the second method (FIG. 3), a bifunctional prepolymer and a multifunctional chain extender undergo a polymer chain extension reaction to form a functionalized polymer (FP) that carries pendant functional groups (i.e. amine, thiol, hydroxyl, carboxyl, etc.) that can be further modified with DHPD to form DHPp. Finally, a premade FP is reacted with DHPD to form DHPp (FIG. 4). In all three synthesis methods, selection of starting materials (comonomer, prepolymer, FP) can be used to control the physical properties of the polymer backbone and ultimately the DHPp.

Synthetic Method 1: DHPD Polymerization

In this section, a series of DHPp were created by copolymerizing DHPD-modified acrylate or methacrylate (DMA) with one or multiple comonomer(s) using an intiator such as 2,2′-azobis(2-methylpropionitrile) (AIBN) as shown in FIG. 5. Polymerization was carried out without protection of the reactive DHPD side chain, which reduces the number of synthetic steps and allows the polymers to be prepared with a higher yield. Although phenolic compounds are known to be inhibitors and radical scavengers,[29-31] the removal of atmospheric oxygen allowed us to synthesize high molecular weight DHPp. Although AIBN-initiated free-radical polymerization is reported here, other polymerization techniques such as atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization can potentially be used. However, DHPD side chain may be required to be protected during polymerization as the metallic catalyst used in ATRP could oxidize DHPD.

Possible chemical structures of polymerizable DHPD are illustrated in FIG. 6. These compounds consist of a catechol coupled to a polymerizable vinyl group. DMA1 was prepared by coupling dopamine to a methacrylate group while DMA2 was coupled to an acrylate group. The difference between these two DMA's lies in the presence of a methyl (—CH₃) group in the methacrylate group as opposed to a hydrogen (—H) in the acrylate group. The presence of the methyl group increases the hydrophobicity and the stiffness of the polymer backbone and reduces the solubility of the DHPp. DMA3 is created by linking a 3,4-dihydroxyhydrocinnamic acid (DOHA) to a methacrylate group with a short, hydrophilic oligomeric linker, 4,7,10-trioxa-1,13-tridecanediamine. This short linker in DMA3 allows the terminal DOHA to have better access for interfacial binding.

A list of monomers copolymerized with DMA is shown in Tables 1A-1E. These monomers range from PEG-based monomers of different molecular weights (Table 1A), to other neutral, hydrophilic (Table 1B), basic (Table 1C) acidic (Table 1D), and hydrophobic (Table 1E) monomers. Depending on the type of monomers used to copolymerize with DMA, adhesive polymers with a wide range of physical properties can be prepared (Tables 2A-2F). PEG-based polymers such as PDMA-1 to PDMA-5 are soluble in both water and a number of different organic solvents such as chloroform, N,N-dimethylformamide, and most alcohols (Table 2A). While polymers PDMA-6 to PDMA-10 are all water soluble, these compounds do not contain PEG (Table 2B). Table 2C lists two hydrophilic polymers that are not readily soluble in water. PDMA-11 is only water swellable while PDMA-12 is water insoluble. Additionally, copolymerization with a temperature-responsive monomer such as NIPAM resulted in PDMA-22, which is water soluble at a temperature lower than 32° C. and becomes insoluble at a higher temperature (Table 2F). Finally, a hydrophobic, fluorinated polymer such as PDMA-13 was also created (Table 2D). Most of the monomers described here are commercially available and inexpensive, or can be synthesized in large quantities, which makes scale-up of the adhesive polymer possible.

In addition to the above-mentioned two-component polymers, three-component polymers were created by copolymerizing DMA with two other types of monomers (Table 2E). In basic polymers such as polymers PDMA-14 through PDMA-17, a basic monomer such as APTA, AA, or DABMA (Table 1C) was used to introduce a positive charge into the DHPp while the third hydrophilic monomer (EG9ME or NAM) was used to render these adhesive polymers soluble in water as well as various organic solvents. On the other hand, acidic polymers with negative charges were also prepared (PDMA-18 through PDMA-21) using acidic monomers such as AMPS and EGMP (Table 1D). These charges on the polymer backbone may enhance the interfacial binding ability to surfaces of the opposite charge. Specifically, PDMA-21 contains phosphonic acid side chains that resemble the phosphorylated serines found in MAPs,[32] which have been shown to bind well to calcium or calcareous mineral surfaces.[33, 34] Additionally, polymers functionalized with quaternary ammonium groups have been found to have a bactericidal effect on contact.[35, 36] PDMA-6 was copolymerized from DMA1 and a zwitterion, SBMA, which contains both a negative charge and a positive charge in one molecule. These zwitterionic compounds have been found to have antifouling properties[37, 38] and corrosion inhibition effects.[39]

By varying reaction conditions such as the DMA-to-comonomer feed ratio and the monomer-to-initiator molar ratio, it was possible to control the molecular weight as well as the composition of the resulting polymers. As shown in Tables 2A-2F, DMA:monomer feed molar ratio was varied between 1:1 to 1:25, which resulted in DHPp with a DMA content ranging from over 32 wt % down to 4 wt %. Depending on the application, different amounts of DMA may be desired. For example, a high DMA content may be required for a coating that promotes adhesion, as enough DMA is needed to coat the support substrate as well as to promote adhesion to a second substrate. On the other hand, a lower DMA content may be needed for an antifouling coating, where it is desirable to have only enough DMA to coat the surface and no excess, as too much DMA could promote unwanted adhesion. Additionally, varying the monomer-to-initiator feed ratio resulted in adhesive polymers of different molecular weights. The molar ratio between the total amount of monomer and AIBN was varied from 25:1 to 250:1, which resulted in DHPD-modified polymers with molecular weights from 5,000 to over 1 million g/mol.

The above-mentioned DHPp are linear, random copolymers of DMA and one or more other monomers. Changes can be made to the chemical architecture to further control the physical properties of these adhesive molecules. For example, branching in the polymer backbone can be used to decrease the rate of curing[21] and a branching point can be introduced by using a small amount (<1 mol %) of diacrylated monomers in the polymerization. A larger amount of these bifunctional monomers will result in the formation of a gel network. In addition to branching points, block copolymers can be created using living polymerization methods such as ATRP and RAFT. Finally, chain transfer agents (CTA) such as cysteamine (CA) can be used to introduce a terminal amine group as seen in FIG. 7, which can used for further modified with other active compounds (i.e. another polymer, ligand, fluorescent tag, etc.). Polymers (PDMA-22, PDMA-23, and PDMA-24) listed in Table 2F were prepared using CA as the CTA. Other CTA such as 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) and 2-mercaptoethanol can be used to introduce a terminal carboxyl and a hydroxyl group, respectively.

Synthetic Method 2: Polymer Chain Extension

As shown in FIG. 3, the functionalized polymers (FP) described here are prepared by chain extension of small molecular weight bi-functional prepolymers (x-A-x, MW=200-10,000) with a multifunctional chain extender (y-B(-z)-y). The functionalized polymer is further modified with DHPD to yield DHPp. Since the prepolymer accounts for the majority of the weight fraction (70-95 wt %) of DHPp, the composition of this prepolymer will have a significant effect on the physical properties of the DHPp. For example, if a hydrophilic prepolymer such as PEG is used, the resulting DHPp will be water soluble. Similar water-insoluble DHPp can be created using hydrophobic prepolymers such as poly(propylene glycol) or polyesters such as poly(caprolactone) (PCL). More than one type of prepolymer can be used during the chain extension reaction to further refine the physical properties of DHPp. Combining hydrophilic and hydrophobic prepolymers will result in a water-soluble DHPp that can undergo physical crosslinking in aqueous media, which may result in microscale aggregation of the polymer, increased viscosity, thermally-induced gel formation, or enhancement of mechanical properties of networks chemically cured from DHPp. Alternatively, an amphiphilic multi-block copolymer consisting of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic blocks can be used to achieve the same effect. Additionally, incorporation of polyester will render DHPp degradable through hydrolysis, and the number of ester linkages in DHPp can be used to control the rate of degradation. Finally, the length of the prepolymer can be used to control the density and content of DHPD, which will affect the adhesive properties as well as the rate of curing of DHPp. Lists of prepolymers used in the synthesis are shown in Tables 3A-3C.

The chain extender (Table 3D) consists of a small molecular weight (MW≦500 Da) compound that contains two functional groups y that can react with functional groups x on the prepolymer, and at least one functional group Z that can react with DHPD. The reaction between functional groups x and y results in the formation of ester, amide, urethane, urea, or carbonate linkages between the prepolymer and the chain extender, which leads to the formation of a functionalized polymer. During the chain extension reaction, either x or y needs to be activated for the coupling to occur, which can be done during or prior to the reaction.

As shown in FIG. 8, the terminal —OH of PEG-diol was first activated to form nitrophenyl carbonate (NPC) followed by reaction with lysine-tetrabutylammonium salt (Lys-TBA) to create an poly(ether urethane) (PEU) with pendant —COOH groups, which was later reacted with dopamine to yield PEU-1 (Table 4A). Here, x is an activated carbonyl group that readily reacted with the amine group, y, on Lys-TBA to create a urethane linkage. In addition to NPC, other activation compounds such as N-hydroxysuccinmide (NHS) or pentachlorobenzene can be utilized. PEU-2 and PEU-3 were both synthesized using NHS as the activating group instead of NPC. Finally, the Z group on the chain extender is a carboxyl group with a TBA counter-ion instead of —H, which makes Lys-TBA more soluble in the organic reaction mixture. Other quaternary ammonium or positively charged groups can potentially be used as the counter-ion.

In certain cases, the Z group needs to be protected since the functional group may react with either x or y during the polymer chain extension reaction. FIG. 9 depicts melt polycondensation between PEG-diol and N-(benzyloxycarbonyl)-L-aspartic anhydride (Cbz-Asp-Anh) to yield an amine-functionalized poly(ether ester) (PEE) after removal of the Cbz protecting groups. Cbz protects the Asp amine group, which could have reacted with carboxyl groups during polymer chain extension if left unprotected. The subsequent reaction between this amine-functionalized PEE with the carboxyl group of N-Boc-DOPA resulted in PEE-1 (Table 4B). DOHA was used in stead of N-Boc-DOPA in PEE-2 and PEE-3. Unlike PEU-1, these poly(ether ester)'s were created by ester linkages formation, which hydrolyze at a faster rate than urethane linkages.

Alternatively, Z can be introduced after the chain extension reaction is complete, as shown in FIG. 10. PEG-diol was first reacted with fumaryl chloride to yield p(EG-Fum), which contains unsaturated double bonds along its polymer backbone. These double bonds were then reacted with thiolated 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) to introduce —COOH groups, which can be further modified with dopamine. PEE-4 through PEE-6 were synthesized using this method (FIG. 4B). Instead of MPA, cysteamine (CA) and 2-mercaptoenthol can be used to incorporate an —NR₂ and an —OH group, respectively. PEE-7 was prepared using CA to introduce pendant amine groups, which were subsequently reacted with carboxyl groups on DOHA. PEG-diol can be substituted with amine-terminated PEG's and the subsequent reaction with fumaryl chloride would lead to the formation of a poly(ether amide) (PEA) which is more stable than PEE. PEA-1 (Table 4C) was created using a diamine-terminated prepolymer, making this polymer less susceptible to hydrolysis than PEE analogues.

FIG. 11 shows a synthetic method where x on the prepolymer and y on the chain extender are of the same functional group (—OH) and chain extension is achieved with the addition of a third compound. PEG-diol and 2,2-bis(hydroxymethyl)propionic acid (HMPA) both have two terminal —OH groups, and polymer chain extension was achieved through the addition of succinyl chloride, which leads to ester bond formation. HMPA has a third functional group, —COOH, that was used to attach dopamine to yield PEE-8 (Table 4B). By changing the PEG-diol with diamine-terminated PEG and HMPA to a diamine chain extender such as Lys-TBA, reaction with succinyl chloride will result in a functionalized polymer with stable amide linkages instead of ester linkages. Similarly, if diisocyanate was used instead of succinyl chloride, functionalized polymers with urethane or urea linkages can be made using an —OH or —NH₂ terminated prepolymer and chain extender, respectively. Finally, functionalized polymers with carbonate linkages can be created by reacting dichloroformate (i.e. PEG-dCF) with PEG-diol and HMPA. These different linkages can be used to control the rate of degradation of the DHPp.

As shown in FIG. 12, the prepolymer can be modified with DHPD prior to polymer chain extension. Diamine terminated ED2k was first reacted with N-carboxyanhydrides (NCAs) of DOPA and lysine (Cbz-DOPA-NCA and Cbz-Lys-NCA, respectively) to form PEG-DL. PEG-DL is further reacted with succinyl chloride to form PEA-2 after removal of the Cbz protecting group (Table 4C). The backbone of PEA-2 consists of ether and amide linkages, which are more stable than ester and urethane linkages in PEE or PEU, respectively.

Using a synthesis scheme similar to that in FIG. 8, poly(ether ester urethane)s (PEEUs) were synthesized by substituting some of the PEG prepolymers with hydrophobic polycaprolactone (PCL) (Table 4D). These PEEUs contain ester linkages that hydrolyze faster than urethane linkages. Additionally, hydrophobic segments can aggregate in the presence of water, which makes these PEAUs able to self-assemble into micro-scaled domains. This self-assembly ability increases the viscosity of the polymer solutions, and under the right conditions (elevated temperature and concentration) they can form a physically crosslinked gel network. Similarly, PEU-3 contains both hydrophilic and hydrophobic segments in its backbone, and aqueous solutions of PEU-3 also display similar self-assembly properties.

Utilization of different synthetic methods along with to the availability of a wide variety of prepolymers to choose from makes it possible to vary the physical properties of DHPps. Various synthetic methods were used to create different backbone linkages with varied stability (PEA>PEU>PEEU>PEE), where PEE is most easily hydrolyzed in the presence of water. In addition, the hydrophilicity of the polymer backbone will affect the rate of hydrolysis. The polymer backbones of PEE-1 through PEE-5 contain over 85% PEG by weight, which would makes these PEEs degrade much faster compared to PEE-7, which consists of F2k (50% PEG and 50% PPG). The hydrophilicity of the polymer backbone will dictate the likelihood of water uptake, which affects the rate of hydrolysis.

The length of the prepolymer can be used to control the amount of DHPD attached. As shown in Table 4B, PEE-2 was constructed using EG600 (600 MW PEG prepolymer) and it has the highest DHPD content (21 wt %) of various DHPps synthesized in this section. When higher MW prepopolymers such as EG1k (8-13 wt % DHPD for PEU-1, PEU-2, PEE-1, PEE-3, and PEE-5) and F2k (3-5 wt % DHPD for PEU-3 and PEE-7) were used, polymers of lower DHPD content were made. 30 and 65 wt % of EG600 was replaced with higher molecular weight prepolymers in the backbone for PEEU-3 and PEU-4, respectively, which dramatically reduced the DHPD content in these polymers (12 and 6.4 wt % for PEEU-3 and PEU-4, respectively) compared to PEE-2. PEU-2, PEA-2, and PEEU-3 were synthesized with a lysine with a free —NH₂ group along the polymer backbone. The amine group can improve the interfacial binding ability of these polymers as well as provide an additional binding molecule for oxidized DHPD. Additionally, the presence of the —NH₂ made amphiphilic PEEU-3 more water soluble compared to PEEU-1 and PEEU-2.

Synthetic Method 3: DHPD Modification of FP

In this section, DHPD is grafted onto pre-made functionalized polymers (FP) that contain pendant functional groups such as —NH₂, —COOH, —OH, or —SH throughout the length of the polymer (FIG. 4). Many different FPs are commercially available and a careful selection should be made based on the desired application of DHPp. For example, synthetic FP such as polyvinyl alcohol, polyallylamine, polylysine, and polyacrylic acid exist and are commercially available, but these polymers exhibit poor biocompatibility[40, 41] and none are biodegradable, which make them poor candidates for use as biomaterials. Biopolymers such as proteins or polysaccharides have certain advantages over synthetic polymers (i.e. biocompatibility, biodegradability, bioresorbability, and the ability to interact with native tissue or cells). Protein-based sealants have been approved for clinical use by FDA, which include gelatin—(FloSeal™, Baxter, Inc.), fibrinogen—(Tisseel™, Baxter, Inc.), and bovine serum albumin-based (Bioglue®, Cryolife, Inc.) products. Polysaccharides such as chitosan, alginate, and hyaluronic acid have been studied for various biomedical applications such as cell encapsulation,[42] wound dressing,[43] and cartilage repair.[44] These biopolymers are linear polymers that contain various functional groups that can be modified with DHPD. Although only modification of gelatin is reported here, other biopolymers with suitable functional groups can be modified with DHPD using the synthetic path described here.

Gelatin is a protein produced by partial hydrolysis of collagen extracted from the connective tissues of animals such as cows, pigs, and fish. Gelatin contains 10% glutamic acid, 6% aspartic acid, and 4% lysine[45] that can react with DHPD through amide, ester, or urethane link formation. As shown in FIG. 13, water soluble carbodiimide was used to couple either DOHA, dopamine, or DOPA to gelatin (75 Bloom, MW ˜22,000). GEL-1, GEL-2, and GEL-3, were prepared with a DHPD content of as much as 8 wt % (Table 5). These gelatin-based adhesive polymers are water soluble at concentrations as high as 30 wt % and can undergo physical gelation like unmodified gelatin.

In addition to attaching single DHPD onto the biopolymers, short polymers of DHPD can be grafted. As shown in FIG. 14, cysteamine dihydrochloride was reacted with gelatin through carbodiimide chemistry and after reduction of the dithiol bonds with 1,4-dithiothreitol (DTT), Gelatin-g-CA was prepared with —SH groups along the backbone of gelatin. These —SH groups can act as a chain transfer agent in free-radical polymerization. Using AIBN as the initiator, GEL-4 was prepared with polymer chains of DMA1 grafted onto gelatin with a DMA1 content of over 54 wt % (Table 5). Alternatively, GEL-5 was synthesized by using the side chain functional groups (—OH, —NH₂, —COOH) of gelatin as the chain transfer agent, and DMA1 accounts for over 17 wt % in GEL-5.

Applications

The synthesized DHPps were tested for their potential to function as 1) tissue adhesives and sealants, 2) adhesive coatings, and 3) antifouling coatings. As a tissue adhesive or sealant (FIG. 15), DHPD in DHPp can be used to achieve both cohesive crosslinking and curing of the adhesive as well as interfacial adhesive interaction with both biological and inorganic surface substrates. To function as an adhesive coating (FIG. 16A), DHPp with an elevated DHPD content was utilized so that after a portion of the DHPD was used to attach to the support substrate, there are still unbound DHPD for binding to a second substrate. For an antifouling adhesive (FIG. 16B), a relatively low quantity of DHPD is desired as the majority of an antifouling DHPp by weight needs to be constructed of polymers that prevent non-specific adhesion. Depending on the desired applications, DHPp were created with different DHPD contents, physical properties, and chemical compositions.

Tissue Adhesive and Sealant

To be used as a tissue adhesive or sealant, DHPp needs to satisfy a set of stringent criteria. First and most importantly, it should have an adequate safety profile, (i.e. low toxicity, non-immunogenic, non-mutagenic, non-irritating, and non-antigenic) and the bioadhesive should be able to retain its adhesiveness after rigorous sterilization.[46-48] In the liquid state, the adhesive should have sufficient flow characteristics so that it can be easily applied to the entire wound surface and should be able to displace water from the boundary layer to maximize interfacial interactions.[46, 49] The adhesive must be able to transform from the liquid state into the solid state under mild physiological conditions, and this transition should be rapid to minimize surgery time and to reduce the possibility of infection.[46] After curing, the bioadhesive needs to maintain strong adhesion to different types of tissue in a moist environment while possessing suitable bulk mechanical properties to withstand the different stresses present during functional use. [46, 48] Unlike sutures and other commonly used wound closure materials, adhesives can act as a barrier for tissue growth at the union of the wound edges. Thus, the adhesive must be able to degrade at a rate that approximates the rate of cell growth for satisfactory wound healing, and the degradation products must be nontoxic and capable of being easily reabsorbed or excreted from the body.[46, 48, 50]

Various DHPps were first tested to see if these adhesives can undergo a rapid transition from a free flowing liquid to a viscoelastic hydrogel. An aqueous solution of DHPp (pH 7.4) and a equal volume of NaIO₄ solution (0.5 molar equivalent to DHPD) were mixed using a dual syringe set-up. The amount of time a selected adhesive formulation takes to cure is listed in Table 6. The curing time for these DHPp adhesives ranged from under 30 sec up to 7 min. Curing time is dependent on such factors as DHPD content, DHPp chemical architecture, and molecular weight. As shown in FIG. 15, cohesive crosslinking of DHPDs results in the curing of DHPp, thus an elevated DHPD content is necessary for a fast curing time. When comparing PEU-1, PEU-2, and PEU-3, curing time lengthened with decreasing DHPD content in these adhesives (13, 8.2, 4.8 wt % dopamine and 30 sec, 70 sec, and 7 min for PEU-1, PEU-2, and PEU-3, respectively). Despite having a low concentration of DHPD, GEL-2 (5.9 wt % dopamine) was able to cure in around 20 sec. Unlike its PEU counterparts, which were constructed mainly of non-reactive polyether backbones, gelatin-based adhesives contain various amino acid side chain functional groups (i.e. amine, hydroxyl, etc.) that can react with DHPD. Additionally, the rate of curing is also strongly dependent on the chemical structure of the DHPp. PDMA-19 took over 4 hours to cure (data not shown) despite having 17 wt % DMA1. The brush-like chemical structure of PDMA-19 may have obstructed pB-bound DMA1 from making crosslinks efficiently. PDMA-5, constructed with DMA3 and EG9ME, was able to cure in 2 min (data not shown). DMA3 has a short oligomeric linker between DOHA and a methacrylate group, which allows the DOHA to be more exposed for crosslink formation rather than buried in a brush of PEG polymers.

To test the ability of these adhesive formulations to function as surgical sealants, they were used to seal an opening (3 mm diameter) on a wetted collagen substrate under pressure. ASTM standard F2392 was followed to determine the burst strength of DHPps using the setup shown in FIG. 17.[51] Since this experiment tests the ability of a given DHPp to bind to a biological substrate in an aqueous environment under stress, the cured adhesives require a good balance of water-resistant adhesive properties as well as bulk mechanical properties. As shown in Table 6, the burst strength of various DHPp formulations ranged from 5 to 230 mmHg/mm. Various factors such as adhesive wt %, the polymer backbone chemical structure, and the crosslinking pathway of the DHPD will have an affect on the burst strength of the adhesive. For example, the burst strength of PEU-2 nearly doubled when the concentration of the polymer was increased from 15 to 30 wt %. This increase is due to improved cohesive properties and crosslinking density in the cured adhesive. PEU-2 was also found to have a burst strength that is nearly twice that of PEU-1. This observation may be attributed to the presence of lysyl free amine groups in PEU-2, which may increase the interfacial binding ability of this polymer. Additionally, the presence of —NH₂ significantly changes the crosslinking pathways that DHPD may undertake,[21, 52] which will dramatically affect the cohesive properties of the cured adhesive. Since these formulations were found to fail cohesively, the difference in the burst strengths between PEU-1 and PEU-2 is most likely attributed to the difference in their bulk mechanical strengths. At 15 wt %, PEU-3 exhibited a similar burst strength to PEU-2 despite having only half as much DHPD. However, PEU-3 was constructed from F2k, an amphiphilic triblock copolymer of PEG and polypropylene glycol (PPG), as opposed to purely hydrophilic PEG. Hydrophobic PPG segments in PEU-3 can form physical crosslinks, which lead to increased cohesive strength. Despite having multiple functional groups on the gelatin polymer backbone, gelatin-based adhesives showed very low burst strength compared to PEU-based adhesives.

As shown in Table 6, varying the DHPD content in DHPp as well as the architecture and the chemical composition of the polymer backbone can have significant effects on the curing rate as well as the adhesive properties of these polymers. Although it is possible to tailor the physical properties of these DHPps by synthesizing a new polymer with the desired components, existing DHPps can be mixed together to form new adhesive formulations with improved physical properties. As shown in Table 7, 50-50 mixtures of PEU-3 with either PEU-1 or PEU-2 reduced the curing time to 5 min from 7 min (PEU-3 alone), which is likely due to increased dopamine content in these mixtures. These adhesive formulations also exhibited increased burst strengths. For example, a mixture of PEU-1 and PEU-3 (81 mmHg/mm) resulted in a 57% increase in burst strength over PEU-1 alone (55 mmHg/mm), and a mixture of PEU-2 and PEU-3 (157 mmHg/mm) resulted in an increase of 22 and 30% over the individual test results of PEU-2 (129 mmHg/mm) and PEU-3 (121 mmHg/mm), respectively. A balance in irreversible covalent crosslinks and reversible physical crosslinks may have attributed to these improvements in the bulk mechanical properties. Other formulations and mixtures can potentially be tested to optimize the adhesive properties and curing rate of these compounds.

One important criterion for any wound closure material is the ability to biodegrade with time as the wound heals. This is especially important for tissue adhesives and sealants, as a non-degradable material may act as a barrier to the union of wound edges. In vitro degradation analysis of DHPp was performed by submerging the cured adhesives in PBS (pH 7.4) at 37° C. As shown in Table 6, PEE-5, which contains hydrolysable ester linkages along its polymer backbone, completely degraded within 2 weeks. Although PEU-1 did not completely degrade over the same period of time, it showed signs of degradation, since the incubation solution turned dark red as result of the release of oxidized DHPD from the adhesive. PEU-1 contains urethane linkages, which hydrolyze at a slower rate than the ester linkages in PEE-5. The rate of degradation was also dependent on the hydrophilicity of the polymer backbone (pB), since it dictates the rate and the amount of water uptake by the polymer backbone. Although PEU-1 and PEU-3 were both constructed by the formation of urethane linkages, PEU-3 did not show signs of degradation, since its incubation solution remained colorless over 2 weeks. PEU-3 consists of F2k (1900 MW pluronic with 50 wt % PEG and 50 wt % PPG), which makes its polymer backbone more hydrophobic compared to PEU-1, which is constructed with hydrophilic EG1k (1000 MW PEG). PEU-3, which was made with a prepolymer of 1900 Da, also has a much lower content of hydrolysable urethane linkages compared to PEU-1, which was synthesized with a 1000 Da prepolymer. Thus, various factors such as the synthesis method, the polymer backbone composition, and the prepolymer molecular weight can be used to tailor adhesives with different rates and potentially different modes of degradation.

Adhesive Coatings

Adhesive-coated tapes, labels, and protective films of all kinds are ubiquitous in everyday life.[53, 54] In the medical field, these adhesive products are used in first-aid bandages, wound dressings, bioelectrodes, transdermal drug delivery patches, and for adhering medical devices to the skin. Good water resistance is needed for these adhesive coatings, both to water applied from outside (i.e. shower), and to water from under the tape or dressing (i.e. perspiration, blood, or wound exudate).[53, 55] Apart from being able to adhere quickly to a biological substrate (i.e. skin), these adhesives also must remain attached to the backing material (i.e tape or wound dressing backing) so that the adhesive does not transfer onto the skin. Therefore the adhesive should not be water soluble. Although various hydrophobic medical-grade adhesives are available as coatings or films, these lose their ability to adhere to skin when its surface is moistened.[56, 57] Newer generations of adhesives are based on hydrophilic, amphiphilic, or hydrogel-based adhesives, and some of them have demonstrated some level of resistance to moisture.[57-59] However, the performance of these new adhesives is significantly weakened by high levels of water adsorption or in the presence of water (i.e. showering). Thus a true water-resistant adhesive that can remain adhered to skin during prolonged periods of strenuous exercise and under humid conditions is needed.[56]

PDMA-12 was chosen to be tested for its potential to function as an adhesive coating. PDMA-12 is a hydrophilic polymer, so it has the ability to wet or make good adhesive contact with the skin. Additionally, PDMA-12 is not water soluble, so it will not be dissolved when the patient sweats. Furthermore, PDMA-12 has a high DMA1 content (21 wt %), which allows the polymer to adhere both to the supporting material and to the skin substrate. Finally, the comonomer, MEA, in PDMA-12 has a relatively short side chain, allowing the DMA1 moiety to be exposed for interfacial contact.

PDMA-12 was coated on a PDMS support constructed with a nano-scaled pillar array as shown in FIG. 19. The nanostructure on the PDMS was designed to mimic the foot pads of a gecko, which is composed of keratinous, nano-sized foot-hairs.[60] Contact between the gecko foot and an opposing surface generates adhesive forces that are sufficient to allow the gecko to cling to vertical and even inverted surfaces. Although the gecko-mimetic PDMS control surface exhibited some adhesion using atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements in air (FIG. 20A), the adhesive force was significantly reduced when the experiment was performed submerged in water. However, PDMA-12-coated surfaces showed significantly increased adhesion to the AFM cantilever compared to the control PDMS surfaces both in air and water. The PDMA-12-treated surfaces remained adhesive even after a thousand contact-and-release cycles in both air and water (FIG. 20B). This result is unique, considering that other synthetic mimics of gecko can only maintain adhesion over a few cycles[61, 67] and gecko adhesion is dramatically diminished upon full immersion in water.[68, 69] As demonstrated here, the adhesive coating of DHPp significantly enhanced the adhesive properties of the existing support materials both in an ambient, dry conditions as well as in a wet or aqueous environment.

Antifouling Coatings

Unlike the adhesive coatings in the previous section, where the adhesive is designed to adhere to two separate surfaces, polymers for antifouling coating applications are designed to adhere to one surface while preventing other materials from adhering to this surface. For medical devices and implants, preventing proteins, cells, bacteria and other unwanted materials from attaching to the surface of a material is essential in maintaining the desired functionality, longevity, and safety of these devices.[74] Proteins that non-specifically adsorb to material surfaces from extracellular fluids can trigger adverse biological responses,[75] and may interfere with medical device function, as is the case with contact and intraocular lenses,[75, 76] blood-contacting devices,[77] and medical implants and surgical tools.[70] Furthermore, the surfaces of implants, tissue engineering scaffolds, and biosensors functionalized with bioactive ligands (e.g. peptides, proteins and oligonucleotides) benefit from a bioinert background that will not interfere with the desired biological response. Thus, for many biomaterial systems there are tangible benefits to reducing, or eliminating entirely, non-specific interactions between the biomaterial and the fluid or extracellular matrix with which it is in contact.

The general design of an antifouling polymer is illustrated in FIG. 16B. The polymer requires a relatively small amount of adhesive DHPD compared to adhesive coatings, while having a large percentage by weight of the polymer with antifouling properties. Table 8 summarizes the ability of various DHPps to function as antifouling polymers when coated on polyvinylchloride (PVC). Advancing water contact angle analysis is a rapid and convenient means of determining if a coating was successfully applied. Advancing contact angles of various hydrophilic DHPp-coated surfaces significantly decreased from that of uncoated PVC (93±2.3), signifying that the antifouling coatings were successfully applied to the PVC.

The antifouling characteristics of each coating were determined by the 3t3 fibroblast adhesion assay. As shown in Table 8, all coating materials tested demonstrated greater than 95% reduction in cell adhesion. Apart from PDMA-7, these polymers have a brush-like architecture with PEG extending from the polymer backbone, which confers antifouling properties to these DHPps. Some of these surfaces were also tested to see if they could resist bacterial (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) adhesion. Although PDMA-2 performed equally well at repelling both fibroblast and P. aeruginosa binding, other PEG-based polymers did not. PDMA-15 and PDMA-18 were both constructed from a PEG-based and a charged (AA and AMPS, respectively) monomer, and these charged polymers did poorly against bacterial adhesion compared to neutral PDMA-2. It is not clear why negatively charged PDMA-21 showed over 98% reduction in bacterial adhesion over the control. Perhaps the difference in the performance of PDMA-21 and PDMA-15 lies in the binding ability of the acidic monomers (phosphonic (PDMA-21) vs. sulfonic (PDMA-15) acid) to the surface substrate. Phosphorylated compounds are known for surface adsorption, which make them more likely to be buried at the coating-substrate interface and away from the antifouling PEG brushes. However, neutrality alone is not enough for good resistance to bacterial adhesion. PDMA-6, constructed from neutral, zwitterionic SBMA, only reduced bacterial binding by 60%. Additionally, PDMA-4 has amide linkages linking its polymer backbone to the PEG brushes and it only reduced bacterial adhesion by 15% compared to 98% for PDMA-2, which contains ester linkages between PEG and its polymer backbone. Finally, PEU-2 was coated onto PVC in a gel form cured with NaIO₄, and this gel-based coating demonstrated superior microbial adhesion resistance.

In addition to PVC, various PDMAs were applied to different polymer surfaces (acetal, polypropylene, polyurethane) and brass. The polymer surfaces exhibited decreased contact angles of the coated surfaces, indicating the coating application was successful (Table 9). The contact angle change was not very significant for brass as the uncoated brass surfaces already has a fairly low contact angle. The coatings all demonstrated good resistance to fibroblast adhesion as shown in Table 10.

PDMA-2-coated surfaces were further challenged with both S. aureus and P. aeruginosa under flow or in static conditions (Table 11). All of the coated polymer surfaces showed a reduction in adhesion of both bacterial strains of >90%. Coated brass surfaces, however, showed some resistance to microbial adhesion but not to the extent of the polymer surfaces. The evaluation of these coatings on brass material may likely be complicated by the high copper content of brass (˜63 wt %). Given that copper is a highly effective biocide, any copper ions leached from the material surface may impact the results of these types of experiments. Finally, when considering the results of these experiments, it is important to note the robust nature of this experimental design. The concentration of bacteria used in these assays (˜10⁸ CFU/ml) is several orders of magnitude higher than what would typically be encountered in vivo. These experiments demonstrated the exceptional antifouling properties of DNPps on different polymeric substrates as well as brass. As demonstrated here, various factors such as architecture, charge, and polymer backbone linkages play an important role the success of DHPps in preventing biofilm formation and bacterial adhesion.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Synthesis of DMA1

20 g of sodium borate, 8 g of NaHCO₃ and 10 g of dopamine HCl (52.8 mmol) were dissolved in 200 mL of H₂O and bubbled with Ar. 9.4 mL of methacrylate anhydride (58.1 mmol) in 50 mL of THF was added slowly. The reaction was carried out overnight and the reaction mixture was washed twice with ethyl acetate and the organic layers were discarded. The aqueous layer was reduced to a pH <2 and the crude product was extracted with ethyl acetate. After reduction of ethyl acetate and recrystallization in hexane, 9 g of DMA1 (41 mmol) was obtained with a 78% yield. Both ¹H and ¹³C NMR was used to verify the purity of the final product.

Example 2 Synthesis of DMA2

20 g of sodium borate, 8 g of NaHCO₃ and 10 g of dopamine HCl (52.8 mmol) were dissolved in 200 mL of H₂O and bubbled with Ar. 8.6 mL acryloyl chloride (105 mmol) in 50 mL THF was then added dropwise. The reaction was carried out overnight and the reaction mixture was washed twice with ethyl acetate and the organic layers were discarded. The aqueous layer was reduced to a pH <2 and the crude product was extracted with ethyl acetate. After reduction of ethyl acetate and recrystallization in hexane, 6.6 g of DMA2 (32 mmol) was obtained with a 60% yield. Both ¹H and ¹³C NMR was used to verify the purity of the final product.

Example 3 Synthesis of DMA3

30 g of 4,7,10-trioxa-1,13-tridecanediamine (3EG-diamine, 136 mmol) was added to 50 mL of THF. 6.0 g of di-tert-butyl dicarbonate (27.2 mmol) in 30 mL of THF was added slowly and the mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature. 50 mL of deionized water was added and the solution was extracted with 50 mL of DCM four times. The combined organic layer was washed with saturated NaCl and dried over MgSO₄. After filtering MgSO₄ and removing DCM through reduced pressure, 8.0 g of Boc-3EG-NH₂ was obtained. Without further purification, 8.0 g of Boc-3EG-NH₂ (25 mmol) and 14 mL of triethyl amine (Et₃N, 100 mmol) were add to 50 mL of DCM and placed in an ice water bath. 16 mL of methacrylic anhydride (100 mmol) in 35 mL of DCM was added slowly and the mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature. After washing with 5% NaHCO₃, 1N HCl, and saturated NaCl and drying over MgSO₄, the DCM layer was reduced to around 50 mL. 20 mL of 4N HCl in dioxane was added and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 30 min. After removing the solvent mixture and drying the crude product in a vacuum, the crude product was further purified by precipitation in an ethanol/hexane mixture to yield 9.0 g of MA-3EG-NH₂HCl. 9.0 g of MA-3EG-NH₂HCl was dissolved in 100 mL of DCM and 6.1 g of 3,4-dihydroxyhydrocinnamic acid (DOHA, 33.3 mmol) in 50 mL of DMF, 4.46 g of 1-hydroxybenzotriazole hydrate (HOBt, 33.3 mmol), 12.5 g of 2-(1H-Benzotriazole-1-yl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluronium hexafluorophosphate (HBTU, 33.3 mmol), and 4.67 mL of Et₃N (33.3 mmol) were added. The mixture was stirred for 3 hrs at room temperature. The reaction mixture was extensively washed with 1N HCl and saturated NaCl. The organic layer was dried to yield 860 mg of DMA3. Both ¹H and ¹³C NMR was used to verify the purity of the final product.

Example 4 Synthesis of PDMA-1

20 mL of poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate (EG9ME, Mw=475) was passed through 30 g of Al₂O₃ to remove inhibitors. 2.0 g of DMA-1 (9.0 mmol), 4.7 g of EG9ME (9.8 mmol), and 62 mg of AIBN (0.38 mmol) were dissolved in 15 mL of DMF. Atmospheric oxygen was removed through freeze-pump-thaw treatment three times and replaced with Ar. While under vacuum, the reaction mixture was incubated at 60° C. for 5 hours and precipitated by adding to 50 mL of ethyl ether. After drying, 4 g of a clear sticky solid was obtained (Gel permeation chromatography in concert with light scattering (GPC): Mw=430,000, PD=1.8; ¹H NMR: 24 wt % DMA1).

Example 5 Synthesis of PDMA-22

987 mg of DMA1 (4.5 mmol), 10 g of N-isopropyl acrylamide (NIPAM, 88.4 mmol), 123 mg of AIBN (0.75 mmol), and 170 mg of cysteamine hydrochloride (1.5 mmol) were dissolved in 50 mL of DMF. Atmospheric oxygen was removed through freeze-pump-thaw treatment three times and replaced with Ar. While under vacuum, the reaction mixture was incubated at 60° C. overnight and precipitated by adding to 450 mL of ethyl ether. The polymer was filtered and further precipitated in chloroform/ethyl ether. After drying, 4.7 g of white solid was obtained (GPC: Mw=81,000, PD=1.1; UV-vis: 11±0.33 wt % DMA1).

Example 6 Synthesis of PEU-1

20 g (20 mmol) of PEG-diol (1000 MW) was azeotropically dried with toluene evaporation and dried in a vacuum dessicator overnight. 105 mL of 20% phosgene solution in toluene (200 mmol) was added to PEG dissolved in 100 mL of toluene in a round bottom flask equipped with a condensation flask, an argon inlet, and an outlet to a solution of 20 wt % NaOH in 50% MeOH to trap escaped phosgene. The mixture was stirred in a 55° C. oil bath for four hours with Ar purging, after which the solvent was removed with rotary evaporation. The resulting PEG-dCF was dried with a vacuum pump overnight and used without further purification.

PEG-dCF was dissolved in 50 mL of chloroform and the mixture was kept in an ice water bath. 7.0 g of 4-nitrophenol (50 mmol) and 6.2 mL of triethylamine (440 mmol) in 50 mL of DMF was added dropwise in an Ar atmosphere and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for three hrs. 8.6 g of lysine tetrabutylammonium salt (Lys-TBA, 20 mmol) in 50 mL of DMF was added dropwise over 15 min and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 24 hrs. 5.7 g of dopamine-HCl (30 mmol), 4.2 mL of triethylamine (30 mmol), 3.2 g of HOBt (24 mmol), and 9.1 g of HBTU (24 mmol) were added and the mixture was further stirred at room temperature for two hours. Insoluble particles were filtered and the filtrate was added to 1.7 L of ethyl ether. After sitting at 4° C. overnight, the supernatant was decanted and the precipitate was dried with a vacuum pump. The crude product was further purified by dialyzing (3,500 MWCO) in deionized water acidified to pH 3.5 with HCl for two days. After freeze drying, 15 g of gooey white product was obtained. (GPC: Mw=200,000; UV-vis: 13±1.3 wt % dopamine)

Example 7 Synthesis of PEE-1

8 g of 1000 MW PEG-diol (8 mmol), 2 g of Cbz-Asp-Anh (8 mmol), and 3.1 mg of p-toluenesulfonic salt (0.016 mmol) were dissolved in 50 mL of toluene in a round bottom flask equipped with a Dean-Stark apparatus and a condensation column. While purging with Ar, the mixture was stirred in a 145° C. oil bath for 20 hrs. After cooling to room temperature, toluene was removed by rotoevaporation and the polymer was dried in a vacuum. 23.8 μL of titanium(IV) isopropoxide was added and the mixture was stirred under vacuum (0.5 torr) in a 130° C. oil bath for 18 hrs. 60 mL of chloroform was added and the solution was filtered into 450 mL of ethyl ether. The precipitated polymer was filtered and dried under vacuum to yield 6 g of p(EG1k-CbzAsp) (GPC: Mw=65,000, PD=4.0).

5 g of p(EG1k-CbzAsp) was dissolved in 30 mL of DMF and purged with Ar for 20 min. 10 g of 10 wt % palladium loaded on carbon (Pd/C) was added and 155 mL of formic acid was added dropwise. The mixture was stirred under Ar overnight and Pd/C was filtered and washed with 200 mL of 1N HCl. The filtrate was extracted with DCM and the organic layer was dried over MgSO₄. MgSO₄ was filtered and DCM was reduced to around 50 mL and added to 450 mL of ethyl ether. The resulting polymer was filtered and dried under vacuum to yield 2.1 g of p(EG 1k-Asp) (GPC: Mw=41,000, PD=4.4).

2.1 g of p(EG1k-Asp) (1.77 mmol —NH₂) was dissolved in 30 mL of DCM and 15 mL of DMF. 842 mg of N-Boc-DOPA (2.83 mmol), 382 mg of HOBt (2.83 mmol), HBTU (2.83 mmol), and 595 μL of Et₃N (4.25 mmol) were added. The mixture was stirred for 1 hr at room temperature and added to 450 mL ethyl ether. The polymer was further precipitated in cold MeOH and dried in vacuum to yield 1.9 g of PEE-1 (GPC: Mw=33,800, PD=1.3; UV-vis: 7.7±1.3 wt % DOPA).

Example 8 Synthesis of PEE-5

50 g of PEG-diol (1,000 MW, 50 mmol) and 200 mL of toluene were stirred in a 3-necked flask equipped with a Dean-Stark apparatus and a condensation column. While purging under Ar, the PEG was dried by evaporating 150 mL of toluene in a 145° C. oil bath. After the temperature of the mixture cooled to room temperature, 100 mL of DCM was added and the polymer solution was submerged in an ice water bath. 17.5 mL of Et₃N (125 mmol) in 60 mL of DCM and 5.7 mL of fumaryl chloride (50 mmol) in 70 mL of DCM were added dropwise and simultaneously over 30 min. The mixture was stirred for 8 hrs at room temperature. Organic salt was filtered out and the filtrate was added to 2.7 L of ethyl ether. After precipitating once more in DCM/ethyl ether, the polymer was dried to yield 45.5 g of p(EG1k-Fum) (GPC: Mw=21,500, PD=3.2).

45 g of p(EG1k-Fum) (41.7 mmol of fumarate vinyl group), 36.2 mL of 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA, 417 mmol), and 5.7 g of AIBN were dissolved in 300 mL of DMF. The solution was degassed three times with freeze-pump-thaw cycles. While sealed under vacuum (5 torr), the mixture was stirred in a 60° C. water bath overnight. The resulting polymer was precipitated twice with ethyl ether and dried to yield 41.7 g of p(EG1kf-MPA) (GPC: Mw=14,300, PD=2.3)

41 g of p(EG1kf-MPA) was dissolved in 135 mL of DMF and 270 mL of DCM. 10.5 g of dopamine HCl (55.4 mmol), 7.5 g of HOBt (55.4 mmol), 20.9 g of HBTU (55.4 mmol), and 11.6 mL of Et₃N (83 mmol) were added. The mixture was stirred for 2 hrs at room temperature and then added to 2.5 L of ethyl ether. The polymer was further purified by dialysis using 3500 MWCO dialysis tubing in deionized water for 24 hrs. After lyophilization, 30 g of PEE-5 was obtained (GPC-LS: Mw=21,000, PD=2.0; UV-vis: 9.4±0.91 wt % dopamine).

Example 9 Synthesis of PEE-9

4 g of HMPA (30 mmol) and 6 g of PEG-diol (600 MW, 10 mmol) were dissolved in 20 mL of chloroform, 20 mL of THF, and 40 mL of DMF. While stirring in an ice water bath with Ar purging, 4.18 mL of succinyl chloride (38 mmol) in 30 mL of chloroform and 14 mL of Et₃N (100 mmol) in 20 mL of chloroform were added simultaneously and dropwise over 3.5 hrs. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. The insoluble organic salt was filtered out and the filtrate was added to 800 mL of ethyl ether. The precipitate was dried under a vacuum to yield 8 g of p(EG600DMPA-SA) (¹H NMR: HMPA:PEG=3:1).

8 g of p(EG600DMPA-SA) (10 mmol —COOH) was dissolved in 20 mL of chloroform and 10 mL of DMF. 3.8 g of HBTU (26 mmol), 1.35 g of HOBt (10 mmol), 2.8 g of dopamine HCl (15 mmol), and 3.64 mL of Et₃N (26 mmol) were added and the reaction mixture was stirred for an hour. The mixture was added to 400 mL of ethyl ether and the precipitated polymer was further purified by dialyzing using 3500 MWCO dialysis tubing in deionized water for 24 hrs. After lyophilization, 600 mg of PEE-9 was obtained (GPC-LS: Mw=15,000, PD=4.8; UV-vis: 1.0±0.053 μmol dopamine/mg polymer, 16±0.82 wt % dopamine).

Example 10 Synthesis of PEA-2

903 mg of Jeffamine ED-2001 (0.95 mmol —NH₂) in 10 mL of THF was reacted with 700 mg of Cbz-DOPA-NCA (1.4 mmol) and 439 mg of Cbz-Lys-NCA (1.41 mmol) for three days. 293 μL of triethylamine (2.1 mmol) was added to the mixture and 105 μL of succinyl chloride (0.95) was added dropwise and stirred overnight. After precipitating the polymer in ethyl ether and drying under a vacuum, 800 mg of solid was obtained. (¹H NMR: 0.6 Cbz-DOPA and 2.2 Cbz-Lys per ED2k)

The dried compound was dissolved in 4 mL of MeOH and Pd (10 wt % in carbon support) was added with Ar purging. 12 mL of 1 N formic acid was added dropwise and the mixture was stirred overnight under Ar atmosphere. 20 mL 1 N HCl was added and Pd/C was removed by filtration. The filtrate was dialyzed in deionized water (3,500 MWCO) for 24 hours. After lyophilization, 80 mg of PEA-2 was obtained. (GPC: Mw=16,000; PD=1.4; UV-vis: 3.6 wt % DOPA)

Example 11 Synthesis of GEL-1

3.3 g of DOHA (18.3 mmol) was dissolved in 25 mL of DMSO and 35 mL of 100 mM MES buffer (pH 6.0, 300 mM NaCl) and 3.5 g of EDC (18.3 mmol) and 702 mg of NHS (6.1 mmol) were added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 10 min and 10 g of gelatin (75 bloom, Type B, Bovine) was dissolved in 100 mL of 100 mM MES buffer (pH 6.0, 300 mM NaCl) was added. The pH was adjusted to 6.0 with concentrated HCl and the mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. The mixture was added to dialysis tubing (15,000 MWCO) and dialyzed in deionized water acidified to pH 3.5 for 24 hrs. After lyophilization, 5.1 g of GEL-1 was obtained (UV-vis: 8.4±0.71 DOHA per gelatin chain, 5.9±0.47 wt % DOHA).

Example 12 Synthesis of GEL-4

10 g of gelatin (75 bloom, Type B, Bovine) was dissolved in 200 mL of 100 mM MES buffer (pH 6.0, 300 mM NaCl). 2.3 g of cysteamine dihydrochloride (10.2 mmol) was added and stirred until it dissolved. 1.63 g of EDC (8.5 mmol) and 245 mg of NHS (2.1 mmol) were added and the mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature. The pH was raised to 7.5 by adding 1 N NaOH, and 9.44 g of DTT (61.2 mmol) was added. The pH of the solution was increased to 8.5 and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 24 hrs. The pH was reduced to 3.5 by adding 6 N HCl, and the reaction mixture was dialyzed using 15,000 MWCO dialysis tubing with deionized water acidified to pH 3.5 for 24 hrs. The solution was lyophilized to yield 7.5 g of Gelatin-g-CA (UV-vis: 0.46±0.077 μmol CA/mg polymer or 11±1.8 CA per gelatin chain).

7.5 g of Gelatin-g-CA (3.4 mmol —SH) was dissolved in 100 mL of 12.5 mM acetic acid. 279 mg of AIBN (1.7 mmol) in 20 mL of MeOH and 3.73 g of DMA1 (17 mmol) were added and the mixture was degassed with two cycles of freeze-pump-thaw cycles. While sealed under Ar, the mixture was stirred in an 85° C. oil bath overnight. The mixture was dialyzed using 15,000 MWCO dialysis tubing with deionized water acidified to pH 3.5 for 24 hrs. The solution was lyophilized to yield 4.5 g of GEL-4 (UV-vis: 54 wt % DMA1, 128±56 DMA1 per gelatin chain).

Example 13 Synthesis of GEL-5

9 g of gelatin (75 bloom, Type B, Bovine) was dissolved in 100 mL of deionized water. 150 mg of AIBN (0.91 mmol) in 1 mL of DMF was added and the mixture was degassed with Ar bubbling for 20 min. The mixture was stirred in a 50° C. water bath for 10 min. 1.0 g of DMA1 (4.6 mmol) in 10 mL of MeOH was added dropwise and the mixture was stirred at 60° C. overnight. The reaction mixture was added to 750 mL of acetone and the precipitate was further purified by dialyzing in deionized water (using 3,500 MWCO dialysis tubing) for 24 hrs. The solution was precipitated in acetone and the polymer was dried in a vacuum desiccator to yield 5.0 g of GEL-5 (UV-vis: 17 wt % DMA1, 21±2.3 DMA1 per gelatin chain).

Example 14 Curing Time of Adhesive Polymer

The amount of time it takes a polymeric solution of DHPp to cure was determined by the vial inversion method. DHPp was dissolved in phosphate buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4) and an aqueous solution of NaIO₄ at a periodate-to-DHPD molar ratio of 0.5 was mixed together in a dual syringe. Curing is deemed complete when the polymeric solution ceases to flow in an inverted vial containing the solution.

Example 15 In Vitro Degradation

Adhesives were prepared as described in Example 14. In vitro degradation of cured adhesive was performed by placing the adhesive in PBS (pH 7.4) in a 37° C. incubator. The time it takes for the adhesive to completely dissolve was recorded.

Example 16 Preparation of Nanostructural Adhesive Coated with DHPp

E-beam resist (950PMMA A3, MicroChem) was spin-coated (4000 rpm, 40 sec) on a silicon wafer several times until the resist thickness, as measured by ellipsometry (Woolam Co. Lincoln, Nebr.), reached 600˜700 nm. The resist was patterned at 30 kV with an area dose between 650-800 μC/cm² using a Quanta 600F (FEI Co. Hillsboro, Oreg.). Resist development was performed for 1 min with a solution of methyl isobutyl ketone/isopropanol (1/3, v/v), followed by rinsing with water. The patterned substrates were treated with oxygen plasma (Harrick, Pleasantville, N.Y.) for 30 sec and repeated 2-3 times to completely remove residual resist from the exposed Si regions. The patterned substrates were then exposed to a triethoxyoctylsilane vapor for 30 min. PDMS was prepared as follows: 4 μL of Pt-catalyst (platinum-divinyl tetramethyl-disiloxane in xylene) and 4 μL of modulator (2,4,6,8-tetramethyl-2,4,6,8-tetravinylcyclotetrasioxane) were added to a 7-8% vinylmethylsiloxane solution (3.5 g). The solution was subsequently mixed with a 25-30% methylhydrosiloxane (1 g) solution. Finally the solution was cured (80° C.) after spin-coating (1000 rpm for 1 min) onto the PMMA/Si master. The spin-coated substrate was covered either by a thin cover glass for force measurements or sylgard-184 PDMS for other experiments such as optical imaging or x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Gecko adhesive was obtained by PDMS pattern lift-off and brief exposure to oxygen plasma (100 W, 30 sec) and used within 2-3 hrs after plasma treatment. DHPp-coated nanostructural adhesive was prepared by dip-coating PDMS in a 1 mg/mL solution of PDMA-12 in ethanol at 70° C.

Example 17 AFM Test

All force data were collected on an Asylum Mfp-1D AFM instrument (Asylum Research, Santa Barbara, Calif.) installed on a Nikon TE2000 microscope. Spring constants of individual cantilevers (Veecoprobes, NP-20 tipless Si₃N₄ tips, Santa Barbara, Calif.) were calibrated by applying the equipartition theorem to the thermal noise spectrum. Due to the large forces exhibited by the adhesive, only tips exhibiting high spring constants (280-370 pN/nm) were used. Metal and metal oxide coated cantilevers were formed by sputter coating ˜10 nm of Au or Ti (a native oxide formed at the Ti surface, TiO_(x)) using a Denton Vacuum Desk III (Moorestown, N.J.). The surface composition of each cantilever was confirmed by time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), using a PHI-TRIFT III (Ga⁺, 15 keV, Physical Electronics, Eden Prairie, Minn.). Cantilevers were treated by oxygen plasma (100 W, 150 mTorr) for 3 min before use. Force measurements were conducted either in deionized water or ambient (air) conditions at a cantilever pulling speed of 2 μm/sec. In wet experiments, optical microscopic examination of the contact region indicated the absence of air bubbles trapped between nanopillars and on the nanopillar surface (not shown). Tapping mode AFM images were obtained using a multimode Veeco Digital Instrument (San Diego, Calif.) with a Si cantilever (resonance frequency of 230-280 kHz). Contact area was imaged by an inverted optical microscope using a 40× objective illuminated by a fiber-optic white light source perpendicular to the objective.

Example 18 Coating and Characterization of DHPp-Coated Surfaces

Test materials were coated by immersion in an aqueous solution containing a DHPp and incubated overnight at a temperature near the respective cloud-point (LCST) of the polymer to maximize surface coverage.[26, 79] After coating, the samples were rinsed with water and dried under N₂. The advancing contact angle of a droplet of water was measured on both clean and coated surfaces using a fixed-stage goniometer (Ramé-Hart) equipped with an automatic drop dispensing system, CCD camera, and data analysis software.

Example 19 Resistance to 3T3 Cell Adhesion

To determine the fundamental ability of these coatings to resist biological fouling, mammalian cell attachment was assayed on coated and uncoated test materials. Triplicate samples of test materials were placed individually in 12-well tissue culture plates and covered with 1 mL of Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) containing 5% calf bovine serum for 30 min. 3T3 fibroblasts (ATCC, #CCL-92) were then seeded on the surfaces at 1.5×10⁴ cells/cm² and the plates were incubated for 4 h at 37° C. Following incubation, the samples were rinsed three times with PBS, stained with calcein AM, and imaged using an epifluorescence microscope at 5× magnification. The total cellular area was determined by digital threshold image analysis. The percent reduction in cell attached area compared to the control surface was then reported.

Example 20 Resistance to Bacterial Adhesion—Continuous Flow Experiment

Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were grown overnight in a chemostat at a dilution rate of 0.07 h⁻¹ in tryptic soy broth. Test surfaces (1 cm×1 cm, UV sterilized) were mounted in a modified Robbins device (MRD; FIG. 21) to assay bacterial attachment under conditions of flow. The bacterial suspension was pumped through the MRD at a rate of 40 mL/min (shear rate=37.5 s⁻¹) across the surfaces of four coated and uncoated samples. After 4 h of exposure, the samples were removed from the MRD, fluorescently stained, and imaged using an epifluorescence microscope (Leica Microsystems GmbH, Wetzlar, Germany) at 40×. Nine random images were acquired from each surface. The total projected area of adherent cells was determined by threshold digital image analysis. The percent reduction in cell attached area compared to the control surface was then reported.

Example 21 Resistance to Bacterial Adhesion—Static Experiment

Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were grown overnight in a batch culture at 37° C. After incubation, the bacteria were resuspended in PBS and diluted to ˜1×10⁸ CFU/mL. Coated and uncoated surfaces were placed in 12-well plates and 1 mL of bacterial suspension was added to each well. The plates were incubated at 37° C. for 4 h. The samples were then rinsed twice with 1 mL PBS and stained for microscopy. Nine random images were acquired from each surface. The total cellular coverage was determined by digital threshold image analysis. The percent reduction in cell attached area compared to the control surface was then reported.

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TABLE 1A List of PEG-based monomers used in this patent application Monomer Abbreviation R₁₀ R₁₂ Poly(ethylene glycol) methylether methacrylate (Mn~300) EG4ME

—CH₃ Poly(ethylene glycol) methylether methacrylate (Mn~475) EG9ME

—CH₃ Poly(ethylene glycol) methylether acrylamide (Mn~680) EG12AA

—H Poly(ethylene glycol) methylether methacrylamide(Mn~1085) EG22MA

—CH₃

TABLE 1B List of neutral hydrophilic monomers used in this patent application Monomer Abbreviation R₁₀ R₁₂ Acrylamide AAm

—H N-Acryloylmorpholine NAM

—H 2-Hydroxyethylmethacrylate HEMA

—CH₃ N-Isopropylacrylamide NIPAM

—H 2-Methoxyethyl acrylate MEA

—H [3-(Methacryloylamino)propyl]dimethyl(3-sulfopropyl)ammoniumhydroxide SBMA

—CH₃ 1-Vinyl-2-pyrrolidone VP

—H

TABLE 1C List of basic monomers used in this patent application Monomer Abbreviation R₁₀ R₁₂ (3-Acrylamidopropyl)trimethylammonium APTA

—H Allylamine AA

—H 1,4-Diaminobutanemethacrylamide DABMA

—CH₃

TABLE 1D List of acidic monomers used in this patent application Monomer Abbreviation R₁₀ R₁₂ 2-Acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid AMPS

—H Ethylene glycol methacrylatephosphate EGMP

—CH₃

TABLE 1E Hydrophobic monomer used in this patent application Monomer Abbreviation R₁₀ R₁₂ 2,2,2-Trifluoroethylmethacrylate TFEM

—CH₃

TABLE 2A List of PEG-based polymers prepared from AIBN-initiated polymerization Monomer Monomer:AIBN Reaction Feed Molar Feed Molar Reaction DMA Polymer Solvent Ratio Ratio Time (Hrs) M_(w) PD wt % PDMA-1 DMF 1:1 50:1 5 430,000 1.8 24 DMA1:EG9ME PDMA-2 DMF 1:9 98:1 18     >10⁶ — 4.1 DMA1:EG9ME PDMA-3 DMF 1:1 50:1 17 790,000 4.1 32 DMA1:EG4ME PDMA-4 DMF 1:3 50:1 16  9,500 1.7 12 DMA1:EG12AA PDMA-5 DMF 1:1 40:1 18 — — 26 DMA3:EG9ME

TABLE 2B List of water soluble polymers prepared from AIBN-initiated polymerization Monomer:AIBN Reaction Reaction Monomer Feed Feed Molar Time DMA Polymer Solvent Molar Ratio Ratio (Hrs) M_(w) PD wt % PDMA-6 0.5M 1:8  77:1 18 220,000 1.2 8.6 NaCl DMA1:SBMA PDMA-7 DMF 1:20 250:1 16 250,000 3.5 4.5 DMA1:NAM PDMA-8 DMF 1:20 250:1 16 — 8.5 DMA2:NAM PDMA-9 DMF 1:10 250:1 16 — 18 DMA1:Am PDMA-10 Water/ 1:10 250:1 16 — 23 Methanol DMA1:Am

TABLE 2C List of water insoluble, hydrophilic polymers prepared from AIBN-initiated polymerization Monomer Monomer:AIBN Reaction Feed Molar Feed Reaction DMA Polymer Solvent Ratio Molar Ratio Time (Hrs) M_(w) PD wt % PDMA- DMF 1:3 100:1 18 — — 27 11 DMA1:HEMA PDMA- DMF 1:8 100:1 18 250,000 1.7 21 12 DMA1:MEA

TABLE 2D Hydrophobic polymer prepared from AIBN-initiated polymerization Monomer:AIBN Reaction Monomer Feed Feed Molar Reaction DMA Polymer Solvent Molar Ratio Ratio Time (Hrs) M_(w) PD wt % DMA-13 DMF 1:25 105:1 17 — — 2.8 DMA1:TFME

TABLE 2E List of 3-component polymers prepared from AIBN-initiated polymerization Monomer:AIBN Feed Reaction Monomer Feed Molar Reaction DMA Polymer Solvent Molar Ratio Ratio Time (Hrs) M_(w) PD wt % PDMA-14 DMF 1:1:1 75:1 17   108 1.2 13 DMA1:DABMA:EG9ME PDMA-15 DMF 1:2:4 70:1 4 132,000 (67 wt %) 1.2 7.0 DMA:AA:EG9ME  61,000 (33 wt %)* 1.3 PDMA-16 DMF 1:1:1 75:1 16 78,000 1.0 18 DMA1:APTA:EG9ME PDMA-17 DMF 1:1:25 84:1 16 — — 6.8 DMA1:APTA:NAM PDMA-18 DMF 2:1:4 35:1 4 82,000 1.9 14 DMA1:AMPS:EG4ME PDMA-19 DMF 1:1:1 75:1 16 97,000 2.0 17 DMA1:AMPS:EG9ME PDMA-20 Water/ 2:1:20 245:1 3 — — 19 Methanol DMA1:AMPS:Am PDMA-21 DMF 1:1:8 67:1 16 81,000 1.2 3.9 DMA1:EGMP:EG9ME *Bimodal molecular weight distribution

TABLE 2F List of polymers prepared using CA as the chain transfer agent Reaction Reaction Monomer Feed Monomer:AIBN Time DMA Polymer Solvent Molar Ratio Feed Molar Ratio (Hrs) M_(w) PD wt % PDMA-22 DMF 1:20 125:2:1 18 81,000 1.1 11 DMA1:NIPAM Monomer:CA:AIBN PDMA-23 DMF 1:3  95:12:1 18  5,700 2.1 31 DMA1:NAM Monomer:CA:AIBN PDMA-24 DMF 1:1  27:1.3:1 18 106,000 (58 wt %) 1.7 5.0 DMA1:EG22MA Monomer:CA:AIBN   7,600 (42 wt %)* 1.6 *Bimodal molecular weight distribution

TABLE 3A Hydrophilic prepolymers used in chain extension reaction Chemical Structure In Poly(Ether Urethane)/ Prepolymer Abbreviation Poly(Ether Ester Urethane) In Poly(Ether Ester) Polyethylene glycol600 MW EG600

Polyethylene glycol1000 MW EG1k

Polyethylene glycol8000 MW EG8k

Branched, 4-ArmedPolyethylene glycol8000 MW EG10kb —

TABLE 3B Hydrophobic prepolymers used in chain extension reaction Prepolymer Abbreviation Chemical Structure Polycaprolactone2000 MW CL2k

PolycaprolactoneBis-Glycine1000 MW CL1kG

PolycaprolactoneBis-Glycine2000 MW CL2kG

TABLE 3C Amphiphilic prepolymers used in chain extension reaction Prepolymer Abbreviation Chemical Structure PEG-PPG-PEG1900 MW F2k

PEG-PPG-PEG8350 MW F68

PPG-PEG-PPG1900 MW ED2k

TABLE 3D Chain extension used in chain extension reaction Prepolymer Abbreviation Chemical Structure Lysine Lys

Aspartic Acid Asp

2,2-Bis(Hydroxymethyl)Propionic Acid HMPA

Fumarate coupled with 3-Mercaptopropionic Acid fMPA

Fumarate coupled withCysteamine fCA

Succinic Acid SA

R₁₅ = DHPD or R₁₅ = H for lysine with free —NH₂ where specified.

TABLE 4A Poly(Ether Urethane) Backbone DHPD Weight % Synthesis Polymer Composition Type DHPD Method M_(w) PD Note PEU-1 89 wt % EG1k; Dopamine 13 FIG. 8 200,000 2.0 11 wt % Lys PEU-2 89 wt % EG1k; Dopamine 8.2 FIG. 8 140,000 1.2 Additional 11 wt % Lys Lysine with free —NH₂ PEU-3 94 wt % F2k; Dopamine 4.8 FIG. 8 — — 6 wt % Lys PEU-4 29 wt % EG1k; Dopamine 6.4 FIG. 8 — — 65 wt % EG8k; 6 wt % Lys

TABLE 4B Poly(Ether Ester) Backbone DHPD Weight % Polymer Composition Type DHPD Synthesis Method M_(w) PD Note PEE-1 91 wt % EG1k; DOPA 7.7 FIG. 9  34,000 1.3 9 wt % Asp PEE-2 86 wt % EG600; DOHA 21 FIG. 9  18,000 4.2 14 wt % Asp PEE-3 91 wt % EG1k; DOHA 13 FIG. 9  11,000 2.9 9 wt % Asp PEE-4 85 wt % EG1k; Dopamine 9.4 FIG. 10 21,000 2.0 15 wt % fMPA PEE-5 71 wt % EG1k; Dopamine 6.8 FIG. 10 77% 17,000* 2.7 16 wt % F68; 23% 250,000 1.2 13 wt % fMPA PEE-6 92 wt % F2k; Dopamine 3.0 FIG. 10 79% 27,000* 1.8 8 wt % fMPA 23% 340,000 1.4 PEE-7 64 wt % EG1k; DOHA 6.1 FIG. 10 63,000 1.7 24 wt % F68; 12 wt % fCA PEE-8 68 wt % EG600; Dopamine 16 FIG. 11 15,000 4.8 19 wt % HMPA; 13 wt % SA; *Bimodal molecular weight distribution.

TABLE 4C Poly(Ether Amide) Backbone DHPD Weight % Polymer Composition Type DHPD Synthesis Method M_(w) PD Note PEA-1 93 wt % ED2k; DOHA 5.9 FIG. 10 — — 7 wt % fCA PEA-2 80 wt % ED2k; DOPA 2.9 FIG. 12 16,000 1.4 Lysine 12 wt % Lys; with free 4 wt % DOPA; —NH₂ 4 wt % SA

TABLE 4D Poly(Ether Ester Urethane) Backbone DHPD Weight % Synthesis Polymer Composition Type DHPD Method M_(w) PD Note PEEU-1 66 wt % EG1k; Dopamine 6.0 FIG. 8 — — 26 wt % CL1kG; 8 wt % Lys PEEU-2 63 wt % EG1k; Dopamine 10 FIG. 8 — — 18 wt % CL1k; 10 wt % F68; 9 wt % Lys PEEU-3 64 wt % EG600; Dopamine 12 FIG. 8 — — Additional 21 wt % CL2k; Lysine 5 wt % EG1k; with free —NH₂ 10 wt % Lys

TABLE 5 Gelatin-based DHPp DHPD DHPD Synthesis Weight % per Polymer Type Method DHPD DHPp Note GEL-1 DOHA FIG. 13 5.9 8.4 GEL-2 Dopamine FIG. 13 5.9 8.4 GEL-3 DOPA FIG. 13 8.0 11 GEL-4 DMA1 FIG. 14 54 128 11 p(DMA1) chains with 12 DMA1 per chain GEL-5 DMA1 FIG. 14 17 21

TABLE 6 Curing and adhesive properties of DHPp Burst In Vitro Degradation DHPp Curing Time Strength after 2-week Polymer wt % (sec) (mmHg/mm) incubation PEE-5 15 60 — Completely degraded PEU-1 15 30 55 ± 7 Showed signs of degradation PEU-2 15 70 129 ± 21 — PEU-2 30 70 228 ± 57 — PEU-3 15 7 min 121 ± 33 No signs of degradation PEU-4 15 2.5 min  89 ± 13 — PEEU-3 15 3 min 46 ± 8 — GEL-1 15 120  5 ± 2 — GEL-2 15 21 — — GEL-3 15 40  5 ± 3 —

TABLE 7 Burst strength of mixed polymers Total Curing Burst Polymer DHPp Time Strength % Increase Over Mixture wt % (min) (mmHg/mm) Single DHPp PEU-1 (50%) 15 5  81 ± 13 47% increase over PEU-3 (50%) PEU-1 PEU-2 (50%) 15 5 157 ± 31 22% increase over PEU-2 PEU-3 (50%) 30% increase over PEU-3

TABLE 8 Contact angle and resistance of DHPp-coated surfaces to fibroblast and bacterial adhesion Fibroblast Bacterial Contact Adhesion Adhesion Polymer Angle (% reduction) (% reduction) PDMA-1 58.9 94.6 — PDMA-2 64.4 96.6 98.0 PDMA-4 — — 15.2 PDMA-5 54.4 97.0 — PDMA-6 — — 59.4 PDMA-7 — 98.7 29.4 PDMA-15 — — 69.7 PDMA-19 64.1 — — PDMA-18 — — 28.9 PDMA-21 — — 97.9 PDMA-24 51.3 99.7 — PEA-1 — 98.3 68.7 PEU-2 — — 98.1 15 wt % Gel

TABLE 9 Advancing water contact angle on control and coated surface materials. Poly Acetal Brass Propylene Poly Urethane Control 85 ± 1.3 48 ± 11  110 ± 3.1  95 ± 5.0 (Uncoated) PDMA-1 60 ± 1.7 48 ± 6.7 58 ± 1.5 77 ± 2.4 PDMA-2 67 ± 2.6 32 ± 5.2 88 ± 5.0 85 ± 3.4 PDMA-5 — 49 ± 1.9 89 ± 2.1 81 ± 5.1 PDMA-24 58 ± 4.0 33 ± 1.0 76 ± 5.5 81 ± 2.2

TABLE 10 Percent reduction in 3t3 fibroblast attachment to various surfaces after treatment with various polymeric coatings. Poly Poly Acetal Brass Propylene Urethane PDMA-1 98.0 83.0 97.6 98.6 PDMA-2 94.2 95.6 99.0 94.2 PDMA-5 — 99.2 99.7 91.9 PDMA-24 — 96.9 99.0 95.5

TABLE 11 Percent reduction in bacterial attachment to various surfaces after treatment with PDMA-2. Poly Poly Polyvinyl Acetal Brass Propylene Urethane Chloride P. Flow 98.1 99.6 99.5 89.7 99.1 Aeruginosa Static 99.7 45.7 95.0 96.2 99.2 S. Aureus Flow 94.4 77.1 92.7 92.2 98.0 Static 99.5 87.5 94.9 94.1 99.3 

1. A DHPD-modified polymer (DHPp) according to Formula (I):

wherein LG is an optional linking group, DHPD is a dihydroxyphenyl derivative, and pB is a polymeric back bone.
 2. A polymer of claim 1 wherein the DHPD comprises at least about 1 to about 100 weight percent of the DHPp.
 3. A polymer of claim 1 wherein the DHPD comprises at least about 2 to about 65 weight percent of DHPp.
 4. A polymer of claim 1 wherein DHPD comprises about 3 to about 55 weight percent of DHPp.
 5. A polymer of claim 1 wherein the pB consists essentially of polyalkylene oxide.
 6. A polymer according to claim 1 wherein pB is substantially a homopolymer.
 7. A polymer according to claim 1 wherein pB is substantially a copolymer.
 8. A DHPD-modified polymer DHPp according to Formula (II):

wherein R₁ is a monomer or prepolymer linked or polymerized to form pB, and LG is an optional linking group.
 9. A polymer according to claim 8 wherein R₁ is selected from the group consisting of polyether, polyester, polyamide, polyacrylate, and polyalkyl.
 10. A polymer according to claim 8 wherein DHPD is 1, 2 dihydroxy phenyl.
 11. A polymer according to claim 8 wherein R₁ is linked through urethane, urea, amide, ester, carbonate, or carbon-carbon bond formation. 